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The urine is formed in the kidneys, and stored in the urinary bladder. The outlet of the bladder is guarded by a ring of muscle called the external sphincter. It is normally tightly closed, preventing leakage of urine. The bladder wall has a muscle called the detrusor vesicae, which contracts to squeeze urine out of the bladder.
Normally, the external sphinter should be relaxed before the detrusor contracts. Other muscles in the pelvis, such as the pubococcygeus, are also involved in the control of urination, and all these muscles must be coordinated for smooth urination. Babies, however, haven't learnt how to do this, and try to squeeze urine out through a closed sphincter. It's quite unpleasant, and they cry.
Sometimes, though, pain at urination may be owing to an infection of the bladder. If your baby cries a lot when passing urine, testing a sample of urine may reveal an infection.
AIDS (the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is caused by a virus, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Many children who are infected at birth are now surviving into their teens. Inevitably, they will go to day care centres, school, and even college.
There are three ways the AIDS virus (HIV) is transmitted. The most common, for children, is vertical transmission -- the acquisition of the infection from the mother, at the time of birth. The other two methods are by blood transfusions and by sexual contact. None of these are to be found in schools, and school transmission of AIDS has never been reported.
Routine daily activities like playing together, eating together, and even sharing the toilet do not spread AIDS. The virus is very fragile, and cannot survive long on toilet seats and other surfaces. Biting has a small theoretical risk, but applies only to very young children. Children must be taught to avoid contact with blood (if a classmate is injured, for example), and to wash hands thoroughly if such contact does occur.
A really sad myth.Children are often denied the goodness of fruits for years. And needlessly -- there is really no evidence that fruit leads to cold, cough, or wheezing. Most colds are viral infections, acquired from classfellows and family.
Some children have allergic disorders. Allergic rhinitis (which looks like a cold, but goes on and on), and asthma are allergic diseases of the respiratory system, and often blamed on fruit. Food items are rarely the cause of respiratory allergy; more likely causes are things we breathe. This includes dust, perfumes, fumes, smoke, and other strong smells. Exposure to these brings on cold, coughing, and wheezing.
Sometimes, of course, a child is genuinely allergic to a fruit. Every time she eats that particular fruit, she will develop symptoms. Once this is realised, that fruit should be avoided; still no need for a blanket ban on all fruit. Fresh fruit and salads are important components of a healthy diet.
Fruit may actually be good for the respiratory system. It has been found that children who eat fruit regularly have better lung function than children who never eat fruit. This holds true for children who have wheezing, too.
Last revision: January 22, 2004